On monasteries and monasticism past and present (part one)

This is the first in a new series from our regular contributor Will Alkass. Will's next article will cover the monasteries and convents that he has visited over the last few years; so watch this space!

The subject of monasticism tends to be surrounded by an air of mysticism and even some degree  of secrecy and misunderstanding. So, out of curiosity and a desire to solve the mystery, my wife and I wanted to seize the opportunity of getting to know more about this aspect of the Christian religion by visiting as many as possible of the monasteries and convents during our travels in many countries in Europe and elsewhere. Thus, we developed a penchant for taking every opportunity to get "up close and personal" with these institutions and their monks and nuns, studying their history and way of life and admiring the unique architecture and unparalleled works of art to be found therein. 

In this first of a series of articles I will briefly survey the monastic movement, including its origins and its pioneers and Saints, describing their historical influence along with its two main divisions, West and East. In the subsequent articles I will cover a selection of the monasteries that we have had the great fortune to visit, in countries such as Serbia, Moldova,  Macedonia, Lithuania, Armenia, Georgia, England, Portugal and Crete.

THE ORIGINS OF MONASTICISM 

In the early days, taking refuge in the desert or in a mountain was the only way for dedicated religious men to escape the persecution suffered by early Christians under the Roman Empire. But when Emperor Theodosius I issued the Edict of Thessalonica in 380 recognising the Catholic Orthodoxy of Nicene Christians as the Roman Empire's state religion, the Christian faith became its state religion; the persecution of Christians stopped and martyrdom in the name of religion was no longer an aspiration for devout Christians. Consequently, a new form of dedication was developed, namely the long-term, life-long "martyrdom" or self-sacrifice of the ascetic life that replaced the former physical violence of persecution and martyrdom.

From the earliest days of Christianity there were men and women who abstained from marriage, meat and wine, and who gave themselves up to prayer and works of charity, away from the distraction and decadence of urban life: in effect this was an emulation of Jesus’ time living in the wilderness.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF MONASTIC LIVES AND TRADITIONS

There are three types of monastic life: the Eremitic life involves a complete withdrawal from society; the Cenobitic life is a community-based existence in a more organized community where monks live in individual huts or rooms but work, eat, and worship in a shared space; the Skete life takes place in a small monastic community that allows both relative isolation and communal services, shared resources and mutual protection under the leadership of an elder. 

The eastern tradition was founded by St Basil and encompasses all of these three monastic lives, with no division between the Active and the Contemplative. There are no established religious rules but each monk and nun is encouraged to read the works of all the Holy Fathers and to emulate their virtues. The western monastic tradition was founded by St Benedict and is based on the Cenobitic life where both Active and Contemplative practice of the monks is governed according to the Rule of St Benedict.

CONTRIBUTIONS OF MONASTICISM TO SOCIETY

Education : At a time when only a small percentage of the population could read and write, monks played a significant role in educating boys in external schools attached to a group of monastic buildings, not only in liturgy but also in arithmetic, grammar, logic, oratory, music and singing. Furthermore, the copying by monastic scribes of ancient manuscripts and religious works conserved this literature for future generations.

Healthcare : Monasteries had infirmaries and pharmacies to medically treat the monks and travellers, the poor, the old, the weak and sick, with the natural medicaments of the time.

Agriculture: Monasteries also aided in the development of agricultural techniques. The requirement of wine for communion led to the development of wine culture (and the subsequent discovery of the méthode champenoise by Dom Perignon). Several liquors like Bénédictine and the Trappist beers were also developed in monasteries; still today many monasteries and convents are locally renowned for their cooking specialities and old recipes. 

Public Administration

Monks were highly praised and sought after for their rare administrative and literary skills. 

SOME LEADING MONASTIC SAINTS 

What follows is a selection of the most important saints who have left their mark on the world of monasticism, but of course there are many other saints and religious people who have also contributed to the founding and maintenance of the monastic movement.

St Anthony

Saint Anthony the Great (c. 251 - 356 AD)

Saint Anthony the Great is seen as the father of all monks and was the first to go into the wilderness in the Egyptian desert to live a truly eremitic life. His biography “Life of Anthony” was written by Saint Athanasius of Alexandria and translated into Latin and it became one of the best known works of literature in the Christian world in the middle ages. St Anthony's intercession is sought against infectious diseases, particularly skin diseases. In the past, many afflictions such as ergotism, erysipelas and shingles were referred to as St. Anthony's fire (or La feu de St Antoine)

St Pachomius

Saint Pachomius (c. 292–348 AD)

Saint Pachomius is seen as the father of spiritual communal monastic life. He was born in Thebes (Luxor, Egypt) to pagan parents and converted to Christianity at the age of twenty two. Pachomius created the community or Cenobitic organization, in which male or female monastics lived together and held their property in common under the leadership of an abbot or abbess (from Abba meaning father); he allowed some monks to devote their whole life to spiritual exercises. By the time Pachomius died there were eight monasteries and several hundred monks following his guidance. Within a generation, cenobitic practices spread from Egypt to Palestine and the Judean Desert, Syria, North Africa and eventually Western Europe. He is credited with the recommendation to use the prayer rope or rosary 

St Basil

Saint Basil of Caesarea (c. 330 - 379 AD)

Saint Basil of Caesarea was born in Cappadocia in modern day Turkey and is considered by Eastern Orthodoxy to be the monastic legislator, being a strong advocate of the Nicene Creed (the Nicene creed is the confession of Christian faith initially agreed in the city of Nicaea in the year 325 and completed in Constantinople in 381). St Basil established guidelines (Rules) for monastic life that focus on community life, liturgical prayer and manual labour, whilst living under the guidance and even discipline of a strong abbot.  Together with St Pachomius he is remembered as the father of communal monasticism in Eastern Christianity. His teachings set the model for Greek and Russian monasticism but had less influence in the Latin West.  

St Martin

St Martin of Tours (c. 316 - 397 AD)

The earliest phases of monasticism in Western Europe involved figures like St Martin of Tours, who after serving in the Roman legions converted to Christianity and established a hermitage near Milan; he then moved on to Poitiers where a community gathered around his hermitage. He became Bishop of Tours in 372 where he then established a monastery at Marmoutiers on the opposite bank of the Loire River, a few miles upstream from the city. His cell was a hut made of wood. His disciples, who soon numbered eighty, dwelt in caves and in huts around his hut. Thus his monastery was laid out as a colony of hermits rather than as a single integrated community.  This type of simple life followed the Anthonian monasticism of Egypt.

St John Cassian

Saint John Cassian (c. 360 – 435 AD)

Saint John Cassian was born in Romania and died in Massilia (Marseille); he spent time living a life of solitude and devotion in Thebes in the desert of Egypt. Cassian's relics are kept in an underground chapel in the monastery of St Victor in Marseilles and his head and right hand are in the main church there. 

Cassian is noted for his role in bringing the wisdom of the desert Fathers to Europe, reaching as far as Ireland. In fact, most modern-day religious orders can trace their spiritual lineage to Egypt. It is believed that Saint John Cassian was influenced by St Anthony, having sold all his worldly possessions to follow a hermetic life. 

St Benedict

Saint Benedict ( c. 480 - 547 AD) 

Saint Benedict is is the patron saint of Europe and is seen as the father of western monasticism; his main achievement is his "Rule of Saint Benedict" which became one of the most influential religious rules in western christendom. He was born in Nursia and died at Monte Casino, Italy.  In the twelve monasteries that he founded the monks lived together in organised communities for the purpose of leading a good life. They shared in everyday work: carrying water up the steep mountain-side, clearing the ground, tending gardens, teaching children, preaching to the country people, reading and studying at least four hours a day, receiving strangers and newcomers, and also attending the regular hours of prayer including reciting and chanting the Psalter. 

It was from the monastery of St. Andrew in Rome (founded by monks who had escaped the sacking of the monastery in Monte casino by the Lombards) that Augustine the Prior and his forty companions set forth in 595 AD on their mission for the evangelization of England. There they introduced St. Benedict's idea of the monastic life which had first emerged in Italy.

Monastery of Lérins founded by Honoratus

Saint Honoratus ( c. 350 - 429 AD)

Honoratus was a wealthy gallo-roman aristocrat, who after a pilgrimage to Egypt founded the Monastery of Lérins in 410 on an island lying off the coast near the modern city of Cannes. The monastery combined a community with isolated hermitages, where older, spiritually-proven monks could live in isolation.

Lérins became in time, a centre of monastic culture and learning; later, many monks and bishops would pass through Lérins in the early stages of their career. Honoratus was also appointed as Bishop of Arles.

MONASTICISM TODAY

In Western Europe many monasteries have survived to the present day in spite of the great difficulties and challenges faced through the centuries, and a great many of them are still very much alive and active, serving their communities in a rather different way to those of past centuries. In England monasteries had their greatest setback under the rule of King Henry VIII in the 16th century, but many of them have made a comeback and are thriving in different parts of the country.

Monastic centres also thrive to this day in the East including Bulgaria, Ethiopia, Georgia, Greece, Republic of Macedonia, Russia, Romania, Serbia and the Holy Land; the Autonomous Monastic State of Mount Athos remains the spiritual centre of monasticism for the Eastern Orthodox faith (it's worth noting that women are not allowed to set foot in Mount Athos). Since the fall of the Iron Curtain, a great renaissance of monasticism has occurred in the east and many previously empty or destroyed monastic communities have been reopened.